Monday, January 27, 2020
Theories of the Causes of Black Holes
Theories of the Causes of Black Holes Black Holes The phrase â€Å"black holes†is introduced to scientific world not by a physicist but a journalist, Ann Ewing in 1964, who made a report on a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (Ewing, 1964). Some elegant French argued that the phrase has annoying sexual insinuation. After that, the famous physics John Wheeler spread the â€Å"black holes†widely in physics and the public view. Actually the concept of an object so massive that even the light can’t be escaped is proposed by Michell (1783), as well as by Laplace (Gillispie, 2000) But this idea was so radical at that time when the light was thought to be massless. The golden age of black holes came along with the establishment of the generally relativity by A. Einstein (OConnor, 1996). Schwarzschild and Droste solved the Einstein field equations independently and a solution describing a point mass was found (Schwarzchild, 1916; Droste, 1917). The properties of the black holes are dev eloped and explained by a group of important works. G. Lemaitre and R. Oppenheimer have interpreted the singularity (Hooft, 2009; Ruffini, 1971). The event horizon is defined as a boundary inspace and time, inside which an event can’t be observed by the outsider (Wheeler, 2007). The no-hair theory of the black hole is completed by the work of Carter (1971), Israel (1967) and Robinson (1975), declaring that a stationary black hole can be described by only three parameters: the mass, the charge and the angular momentum. The black hole thermodynamics is interpreted by Bardeen et al. (1973). In order to get a direct physical picture of a black hole, an illustration of a non-spinning black hole is given. Based on mathematically solution, a non-spinning black hole possesses a spherically symmetric boundary, which is also the event horizon. The center of the non-spinning black hole is a singularity where the gravitational forces become infinite. The distance between the singularity and the event horizon is called the Schwarzschild radius. The surface gravity of a stationary black hole is constant over the event horizon. One thing to be noted, it is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce the surface gravity to zero by a finite sequence of operations. Aphoton sphere, the radius of which is 1.5 times of the Schwarzschild radius, is a spherical special region where gravity forces the photons to travel in orbits. Generally the black hole is classified to four groups according to their mass: micro, stellar, intermediate-mass and super ma ssive black hole. Generally the size of a black hole is approximately proportional to its mass, the heavier of a black hole, the bigger of its size. A black hole with mass of 1000 times of solar mass has a radius like the earth. The formation of a black hole is a mystery. Einstein thought that the exotic object, like black holes, would not exist in nature even there are such solutions to Einstein gravitationalfield equations. However, more and more theoretical calculations and even important astronomical observations have proved that Einstein is wrong. Most astrophysicists have reached an agreement that the formation of a black hole usually evolves many stages. First the primary process of the evolution is the gravitational collapse, which is usually occurs after the death of a heavy object, like stars. When a star doesn’t have enough â€Å"fuel†to keep its temperature through nuclearreaction or the star is keeping absorbing matters around it by universalgravitation. After the collapse, if the mass of leftover exceeds over 3 to 4 times of solar mass, it has an opportunity to form a black hole. The second stage is the formation of the event horizon, which is also the way to distinguish the blac k holes and other forms of objects, such as neutron stars, which are also a result of the gravitational collapse. Thanks to the work of Kerr (2009), who proved that the event horizon could be physical not just mathematical. According to the black holes thermodynamics, the area of the event horizon of each black hole does not decrease with time. After the presence of the event horizon, a singularity will form in a black hole (Penrose, 1965). This is considered to be the third stage. A black hole can continually grow up by absorbing the matters and interstellar dust or even merges with other stars or black holes. This is considered to be a way to super massive black holes. The last stage of black holes is the evaporation. If the Hawking’s theory can be verified, a black hole is not totally black but emits its thermal radiation with a quite small quantity. This means that a black hole would loss its mass by Hawking radiation (Parikh, 2000) and vanishes eventually. Simulation res ults show that a small black hole owns very strong emission effects. The Hawking radiation will be discussed in details. Once the scientific world accepts the concept of black holes, a question is launched: are the black holes keep growing and expanding? Hawking says no! By applying quantum field theory into a stationary black hole background, he found that a black hole should radiate particles like a black body near the event horizon (Hawking, 1974). Physical picture to this bizarre phenomenon is the radiation is not come from the black holes directly, but the results of particle-antiparticle formation just beyond the event horizon. Specifically, a particle-antiparticle pair generated from the vacuum fluctuations appears close to the event horizon. One of the pair escapes forms the boundary while another one falls into it (Droste, 1917). Another interesting question is: how can be detected a black hole where even light can’t escape? The direct way is to probing the Hawking radiation, unfortunately the simulation results show that the Hawking radiation is too small to be detected from the Earth. In 2008 NASA launched the Fermi Gammar-ray Space Telescope to search the Hawking radiation which is strong in the last stage of a black hole (Naeye, 2008). Beyond the detection of Hawking radiation. Many indirect approaches to detecting black holes are proposed and realized by astrophysicists. The X-ray binaries, a binary star system, emit bright X-ray spectrum. The XUV radiation is generally considered to be caused by a compact star being accreting interstellar gas and dust. The presence of the X-ray binary gives an opportunity to locating a black hole. In 1999, Celotti reported the existence of the sofr X-ray transients and predicted that a black hole may be formed in the region (Celotti, 1999). Still more data and needed to verify this finding. Another way to detect a black hole is based on the massive gravitational effect caused by the black holes. On candidate is the gravitational lens effect which deforms the space structure to bend the light as if a lens. The way to observe the gravitational lens effect is to observe the orbit of a star near the vicinity of a black hole. The evidence of the black holes caused gravitational lens i s found by Bozza et al. (2010) around Sagittarius A*. A widely accepted view is that a super massive black holes exists in nearly the center of every galaxy, not just active ones. When an observer is falling into a black hole, what kind of experience would he have? Theorists argue that if another observer out of the black holes tries to describe the falling one he should never be able to cross the horizon. This means, the falling one should take infinite time to cross the event horizon if he were not torn apart by tidal forces even before reaching the horizon. On the other hand, for this observer falling across the event horizon, he takes only a finite proper time in his own coordinate. However, he will not find any Hawking radiation. In fact this paradox comes from the contradiction between the general gravitational theory and the quantum mechanism. The two theories are successful in their own regions, general gravitational theory for cosmic and the quantum mechanism for atomic particles, but they can’t fit each other. The funny thing is that Einstein is against the quantum mechanism even he is one of the founders to it and even he was rewarded the Nob ile Prize for his important work in quantum mechanism. Until now this is still an open question to the theoretical and astronomical physicists. The black holes attract attentions both from scientists and the public. At first, it is only a mathematical expression for a special space time structure where nothing can be escape from it and described in scientific fictions. However with the appearances of more and more indirect evidences, it turns out to be reality with certain possibility. From scientific view of point, the black holes own unique properties and components, such as singularity, the event horizon, Hawking radiation. The black holes can provide particular physical conditions where new physical laws and principles can be verified. The researches on black holes push the frontier of astronomy, including worm holes, interstellar travel between stars, cosmic settlement. Fortunately we have plenty of time, maybe millions of years. References Bardeen, J. M. et al. (1973). The four laws of black hole mechanics. Communication Mathematical Physics, Vol. 31. pp. 161-170. Bozza, V. (2010). Gravitational lensing by black holes.General Relativity and Gravitation, Vol. 42. No.42. pp. 2269–2300. Carter, B. (1971). Axisymmetric black hole has only two degrees of freedom. Physical Review Letters Vol. 26. No. 6. pp.331-333. Celotti, A.; Miller, J. C.; Sciama, D. W. (1999). Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes.Classical and Quantum Gravity, Vol. 16. No.12. pp. A3–A21. Droste, J.(1917). On the field of a single centre in Einsteins theory of gravitation, and the motion of a particle in that field. Proceedings Royal Academy Amsterdam, Vol.19.No. 1. pp. 197–215. Droste, J.(2009). On the field of a single centre in Einsteins theory of gravitation, and the motion of a particle in that field. Proceedings Royal Academy Amsterdam,Vol. 19. No.1. pp.197–215. Gillispie, C., Laplace, P. (2000). 1749–1827: a life in exact science. Princeton University Press. Hawking, S. W. (1974). Black hole explosions? Nature,Vol. 248.No. 5443. pp. 30–31. Hooft, G.t. (2009). Introduction to the theory of black holes. Institute for Theoretical Physics / Spinoza Institute. pp.47–48. Israel, W. (1967). Event Horizons in Static Vacuum Space-Times.Physical Review Vol. 164. No. 5. pp. 1776-1779. Kerr, R. P. (2009). The Kerr and Kerr-Schild metrics. Spacetime. Cambridge University Press. Michell, J. (1784). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No.74. pp. 35–57. Naeye, R.(2008). Testing fundamental physics. NASA. OConnor, J.J., and Robertson, E.F. (1996). General relativity.University of St. Andrews, Scotland. Parikh, M., Wilczek, F. (2000). Hawking radiation as tunneling. Physical Review Letters, No. 26. No. 21. pp. 1344-1346. Penrose, R.(1965). Gravitational collapse and space-time singularities. Physical Review Letters,Vol. 14. No.3. pp. 57-59. Quinion, M.(2008). Black Hole.World Wide Words. Robinson, D. (1975). Uniqueness of the Kerr black hole. Physical Review Letters,Vol. 34. No. 14. pp. 905-906. Ruffini, R.;Wheeler, J. A.(1971). Introducing the black hole.Physics Today,Vol. 24No. 1. pp. 30–41. Schwarzschild, K.(1916). ÃÅ"ber das gravitationsfeld eines massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen theorie.Sitzungsberichte der Kà ¶niglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,No. 7. pp. 189–196. Wheeler, J. Craig. (2007). Cosmic catastrophes. Cambridge University Press.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Low Visibility Essay
The short story â€Å"Low Visibility†by Margaret Murphy is a fictional story, which deals with many topics, such as violence, love, hate, oppression, and right and wrong and the story is told by an un instructed and omniscient 3. person narrator who tells the story as it unfolds. The plot takes off in medias res as we are thrown into a scene where Laura’s husband John is watch ing television without any introduction. The structure in the story lets us jump a bit back and forth between two settings, as we are shown what is happening in the streets though Johns television, while we are also following the main characters in the apartment. So the story unfolds two places: the streets and John and Laura’s apartment. The setting shows that Laura and John does not have a lot of money, and are probably low class or low middle class because they live in an apartment above a shop, which is not normally a location those people would choose to live. There is also smaller details that support this, like the fact that John wears boots inside, and John feels that his wife should not be trusted with anything of value, which might be an indication that they don’t really have many things of value. The title â€Å"Low Visibility†is a synonymous of Laura. She does not have anything to say at home, and she is John submissive. Margaret Murphy plays on this pun, by letting Laura feel invisible to her very filling husband, John. At the end of the story, Laura walks outside and joins the people of low visibility. Thereby she gets over John, and she does not want him to be a part of her life any more. Margaret Murphy shows this by now referring to her by her real name. We don’t hear a lot of factual stuff about Laura, how she looks and so on, but we do know a lot about her character. She used to be a happy, out going person and now her husband has squeezed the spirits out her( P.8 l.19-24). Laura is now a humble, nervous, humourless, unhappy and very submissive person: â€Å"Better that he hurt her absent-mindedly, as a man might puncture and tear at the rim of a polystyrene cup. It comforts her that there is no malice in it. She has learned to find solace in small things.(p. 9 l. 49-51) From this, it is obvious that their marriage is deeply dysfunctional. â€Å" People say he’s light on his feet for a big man, but he never was so with her. When he walked all over her, she felt it.†(P. l. 105-106). The sentence clearly describes their marriage pretty much. He doesn’t know how to love and she can’t stand up for herself. When he is described as a big man, it also symbolizes how he is both verbally and physically abusive and more in control than her. John as young he was always the outsider. The sort of person who always slouched at the edge of a group, eager to be a part of it, but never really was accepted and respected by the others. And exactly this depressing role was the reason for his and Laura’s marriage in the first place. She wanted to help him, to teach him how to interact with others socially. And he was hoping for about the same; that her popularity would make him popular too: â€Å"He thought that her good humour would seep into him, breaching the walls of his defences, that happiness was something that could be absorbed, as a plant takes in water, by osmosis.†(P. 8 l.19-22) Yet it did not work out the way they planned. He simply didn’t have the abilities: â€Å"He hadn’t the in telligence for wit or the disposition for contentment†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ( P. 22-24) The masses in the street are revolting because of some sort of oppression even though it is not said directly in the text what they are protesting against, and like he doesn’t have the intelligence to un derstand his wife, neither does he understand the people in the street:†What are they protesting about?’ John demands. â€Å"Their own shitty lives?’’(p. 8 l. 14). The riots are like Laura, just in a big ger scale. Because John does not understand this, he goes down to the store to fight off all of the looters, to strangle their protest like he strangled her spirit, but when he is beaten up and is lying on the ground, Laura sees that he is just a man, a man who feels afraid. Laura realizes that a person has ability to change. She is revived. â€Å"She feels herself returning – the particles of herself that her hus band caused to flee are returning into her†(P12 l. 161-163). She considers killing him with a brick, but chooses the Tigers Eye instead which is placed in her other hand. The Tigers Eye symbolizes that she is focus, patience like a tiger who concentrates on its desire. In this case, Laura’s desire is to be free. The most important is the importance of fighting for your rights and freedom. Laura’s marriage has reduced her to a simple object with no liberty or human rights. As the story however approaches, she realizes that she will have to stand up against her husband, if she wants the situation changed. When Laura walks away, she walks away to be invisible again, to join the invisible people (P. 12 l. 173). She fight oppression and changed the situation, like it is naturally to fight oppression. Some times you need a little push like Laura did, but essentially it is inevitable. It secures human survival, and it secured her mental survival. â€Å"A window explodes behind her, sending cascades of glass, mu sical, deadly, to the pavement. Laura is unharmed†(P. 12 l .78)
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Exam 2
BIOS102- 250 Fall 2012 Sample Second Exam MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1) Which of the following statements describes NAD + ? A) In the absence of NAD + , glycolysis can still function. B) NAD+  is reduced to NADH during glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle. C) NAD+  can donate electrons for use in oxidative phosphorylation. D) NAD+  has more chemical energy than NADH. E) NAD+  is oxidized by the action of hydrogenases. ) During glycolysis, when each molecule of glucose is catabolized to two molecules of pyruvate, most of the potential energy contained in glucose is A) stored in the NADH produced. B) transferred directl y to ATP. C) transferred to ADP, forming ATP. D) retained in the two pyruvates. E) used to phosphorylate fructose to form fructose 6 – phosphate. 3) Starting with one molecule of glucose, the energy – containing products of glycolysis are A) 6 CO2 , 30 ATP, and 2 pyruvate. B) 2 NAD+ , 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP. C) 6 CO2 , 2 ATP, and 2 pyruvate. D) 2 FADH2 , 2 pyruvate, and 4 ATP. E) 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP. ) Why is glycolysis described as having an investment phase and a payoff phase? A) It uses stored ATP and then forms a net increase in ATP. B) It both splits molecules and assembles molecules. C) It uses glucose and generates pyruvate. D) It attaches and detaches phosphate group s. E) It shifts molecules from cytosol to mitochondrion. 5) The primary role of oxygen in cellular respiration is to A) combine with lactate, forming pyruvate. B) yield energy in the form of ATP as it is passed down the respiratory chain. C) act as an acceptor for electrons and hydrogen, forming water. D) combine with carbon, forming CO 2 .E) catalyze the reactions of glycolysis. 6) In liver cells, the inner mitochondrial membranes are about five times the area of the outer mitochondrial membranes. What purpose must this serve? A) It increases the surface for oxidative phosphorylation. B) It allows for an increased rate of glycolysis. C) It increases the surface for substrate – level phosphorylation. D) It allo ws the liver cell to have fewer mitochondria. E) It allows for an increased rate of the citric acid cycle. 1 7) In the absence of oxygen, yeast cells can obtain energy by fermentation, resulting in the production of A) ATP, pyruvate, and acetyl CoA.B) ATP, CO2 , and lactate. C) ATP, NADH, and pyruvate. D) ATP, pyruvate, and oxygen. E) ATP, CO2 , and ethanol (ethyl alcohol). 8) Phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6 – phosphate to fructose 1,6- bisphosphate, an early step of glycolysis. In the presence of oxygen, an increase in the amount of ATP in a cell would be expected to A) inhibit the enzyme and thus increase the rates of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. B) activate the enzyme and thus slow the rates of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. C) inhibit the enzyme and thus slow the rates of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.D) inhibit the enzyme and thus increase the rate of glycolysis and the concentra tion of citrate. E) activate the enzyme and increase the rates of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. 9) Which of the events listed below occurs in the light reactions of photosynthesis? A) Carbon dioxide is incorporated into PGA. B) NADP is produced. C) Light is absorbed and funneled to reaction – center chlorophyll a. D) ATP is phosphorylated to yield ADP. E) NADPH is reduced to NADP + . 10) Which of the following  statements best describes the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration?A) Respiration is anabolic and photosynthesis is catabolic. B) ATP molecules are produced in photosynthesis and used up in respiration. C) Photosynthesis stores energy in complex organic molecules, whereas respiration releases it. D) Photosynthesis occurs only in plants and respiration occurs only in animals. E) Respiration runs the biochemical pathways of photosynthesis in reverse. 11) In thylakoids, protons travel through ATP synthase from the thylakoid space to the stroma. Therefore, the catalytic ? knobs? of ATP synthase would be located A) on the ATP molecules themselves.B) built into the center of the thylakoid stack (granum). C) on the pi gment molecules of photosystem I and photosystem II. D) on the stromal side of the membrane. E) on the side facing the thylakoid space. 12) What is the primary function of the Calvin cycle? A) use ATP to release carbon dioxide B) use NADPH to release carbon dioxide C) synthesize simple sugars from carbon dioxide D) split water and release oxygen E) transport RuBP out of the chloroplast 2 13) Photorespiration occurs when rubisco reacts RuBP with A) 3 – phosphoglycerate. B) CO 2 . C) O2 . D) glyceraldehyde 3 – phosphate. E) NADPH. 4) Compared to C 3  plants, C 4  plants A) make a four- carbon compound, oxaloacetate, which is then delivered to the citric acid cycle in mitochondria. B) have higher rates of photorespiration. C) can continue to fix CO 2  even at relatively low CO2 concentrations and high oxygen concentrations. D) grow better under cool, moist conditions. E) do not use rubisco for carbon fixation. 15) Taxol is an anticancer drug extracted from the Pacific yew tree. In animal cells, Taxol disrupts microtubule formation by binding to microtubules and accelerating their assembly from the protein precursor, tubulin. Surprisingly, this stops mitosis.Specifically, Taxol must affect A) the formation of the mitotic spindle. B) the S phase of the cell cycle. C) formation of the centrioles. D) chromatid assembly. E) anaphase. 16) Measurements of the amount of DNA per nucleus were taken on a large number of cells from a growing fungus. The measured DNA levels ranged from 3 to 6 picograms per nucleus. In which stage of the cell cycle did the nucleus contain 6 picograms of DNA? A) G1 B) G0 C) M D) S E) G2 17) What is a cleavage furrow? A) a ring of vesicles forming a cell plate B) the metaphase plate where chromosomes attach to the spindle C) the separation of divided prokaryotesD) the space that is created between two chromatids during anaphase E) a groove in the plasma membrane between daughter nuclei 18) Which of the following describe(s) cyclin- dependent kinase (Cdk)? A) Cdk is present throughout the cell cycle and is an enzyme that attaches phosphate groups to other proteins. B) Cdk is inactive, or ? turned off,? in the presence of cyclin. C) Cdk is an enzyme that attaches phosphate groups to other proteins. D) Cdk is inactive, or ? turned off,? in the presence of cyclin and it is present throughout the cell cycle.E) Cdk is present throughout the cell cycle. 3 19) Why do neurons and some other specialized cells divide infrequently? A) They no longer carry receptors for signal molecules. B) They no longer have active nuclei. C) They have been shunted into G 0 . D) They can no longer bind Cdk to cyclin. E) They show a drop in MPF concentration. 20) For a chemotherapeutic drug to be useful for treating cancer cells, which of the following is most desirable? A) It only attacks cells that are density dependent. B) It interferes with cells entering G0 . C) It interferes with rapidly dividing cells. Exam 2
Thursday, January 2, 2020
The Democrats And The Whigs Were Polar Opposites Essay
Time Period 4 Study Guide 1. The Democrats and the Whigs were polar opposites of each other and believed strongly in different aspects of the federal government, economy, and state. The Whigs were mainly a conservative group which believed in a strong active government that protected industry through tariffs and wanted internal improvements such as canals, railroads, and telegraph lines as well as to promote public education. The Whigs also favored both Northern and Southern manufacturing and agriculture but did not like the concept of slavery and wished to abolish it. The Democrats on the other hand favored a state government over a federal government and believed in agriculture and slave labor over industry. The Democrats believed that the government should leave business alone, neither hindering it nor helping it. 2. The factors that contributed to the Second Great Awakening can be attributed to a reaction against rationalism which is the belief in human reason. Essentially being a Protestant revival movement, Baptists and Methodists led the movement as preachers. The Second Great Awakening focused on reviving religion before the Second Coming of God which was believed to be when the world was supposed to end. Overall the world did not end like it was predicted to, however the effects of the Second Great Awakening affected women as it gave them more status in society as well as a purpose. 3. The growth of a New American culture was instigated through the works of theShow MoreRelatedThe Democratic Party And Jacksonian Democracy738 Words  | 3 Pagesgovernment, economics, and politics. The Second Party System emerged after the Democratic and Whig parties came to power in America. The development of this party system was prompted by the clashing philosophies about individual rights, government control, and land acquisition. Despite both parties being equally prevalent in America, the Democratic Party flourished and was drastically much more successful than the Whig Party at impacting the nation. Between 1824 and 1828, with the support of AndrewRead MoreLincoln versus Douglas: One Mans Fall is Another Mans Rise Essay example2094 Words  | 9 Pagesbattle of dialect, rhetoric and moral justification. The two adversaries differed in partisanship, political success, height, methods of Government action, and most of all morality of what is right. Although the candidates presented polar opposites visions for America, they were similar in their dynamic display of debating. Both men possessed eloquence in their speeches and disposition. The debates consisted of seven encounters throughout Illinois. After one-hundred and fifty years, the historical significanceRead MoreThe Best President in American History: Abraham Lincoln Essay example3532 Words  | 15 Pagesâ€Å"whole†man, who he really was and the enormous impact he was to have upon the lives of millions of people, the country of America and the world as a whole. What makes this man so extraordinary is not necessarily his accomplishments, which themselves were immense, but the fact that he achieved them in the face of hardship and frequent failure. His failures have even served as a model to inspire people to overcome great obstacles and life’s difficulties. He failed as a business man, a farmer and in
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